Part 5 · discourse & pragmatic markers

topic and focus

TOP – topic

The demonstrative nêˀ "that" used as a topic marker, separating the topic NP from the comment. Indicates what the sentence is about.

subject as topic

kəθîˀ-θərâˀ lə̄ ʔə-ɣè təpʰâˀ nêˀ ʔôˀ=wɛ̄.dâˀ lə̄ wê pʰāˀ.dôˀ ʔə-pù
medicine-teacher REL 3-be.good COLL that EXIST=WD GNR.P city be.big 3x-inside
“The good doctors live in the big city.”

object as topic

tʰī-tə̂ nêˀ pə-wī ʔɔ̀ nê=wɛ̄.dâˀ θə̄ pʰlə̂ˀ
water-container that 1p-carry 3i get=WD three CLF
“As for water containers, we can carry three (at a time).”

with proximal demonstrative ʔì

pɣà.kəɲɔ̄-pʰō ʔì tə-xū nɔ̄ tə-sɛ̄ˀ~sɛ̄ˀ bâˀ
Karen-child this NEG-be.unified EXT one-bit~bit NEG.FP
“The Karen aren't unified at all.”

with combined ʔì nêˀ

lìˀ-kwɛ̂.kwɔ̂ ʔì nêˀ mê=wɛ̄ lìˀ lə̄ ʔə-rē.dôˀ nêˀ pə-tə-tû.lòˀ bâˀ
script-Kwekor this that COP=WD script REL 3-be.important that 1p-NEG-accept NEG.FP
“We don't accept that the Kwekor script is an important script.”

FRAME – frame-setting particle

The same marker nêˀ used after frame-setting adverbials that delimit the domain of interpretation (temporal, conditional, causal, etc.).

temporal frame

kʰā.sʰū.ɲā nêˀ nə-ʔɛ̂ˀ.dōˀ mà tâ dɔ̄ˀ pʰō.dī.pʰō.θâˀ ɦā
future that 2s-want do thing with child PQ
“In the future, do you want to work with children?”

causal frame

ʔə-xō nêˀ ʔəwɛ̄.θêˀ nêˀ ʔə-hɔ̂ˀ.kʰôˀ nêˀ tə-ʔɛ̂ˀ.dōˀ sʰā=wɛ̄ bâˀ
3x-REASON that 3.PL that 3x-land that NEG-want sell=COR NEG.FP
“Therefore, they don't want to sell their land.”

with dɔ̄ˀ "then" as frame marker

nə-pɔ̂.tʰī mê wì dɔ̄ˀ nə-kə-mà tâ mənɨ̀ lɛ̂ˀ
2s-swim if finish then 2s-IRR-do thing what CQ
“After swimming, what will you do?”

CNTR – contrastive

The marker təkʰɔ̄ (from "one side") used to contrast one referent with another, meaning "as for X, for X's part." Often abbreviated as kʰɔ̄ in casual speech.

contrasting two referents

mē mê pɣà kʰɛ̄.ʔì tə-kʰɔ̄ tə-dīˀ nêˀ ʔə-θōˀ lə̀ bâˀ
if COP person now one-side NEG-be.like that 3x-SIM anymore NEG.FP
“As for people nowadays, they are not like that anymore.”

with emphatic pronoun

pəwɛ̄.dâˀ kʰɔ̄ dɨ̄ pə-kə-θū kəɲɔ̄-pɣô mɨ̂.nɨ̀ˀ ʔə-lìˀ dɔ̄ˀ kəɲɔ̄-sɣɔ̀ ʔə-lìˀ θêˀ.təpʰâˀ nêˀ.lɔ̀
1pe side TOP 1p-IRR-use Karen-Pwo west 3x-script and Karen-Sgaw 3x-script COLL FP
“We, for our part, will use the Western Pwo script and the Sgaw script.”

in imperative (lɛ̀ nɛ̄ təkʰɔ̄)

tə-lôˀ ʔôˀ-kʰōˀ jà bâˀ | lɛ̀ nɛ̄ təkʰɔ̄
NEG-need EXIST-wait 1si NEG.FP go 2se CNTR
“No need to wait for me. You go ahead (as for you).”

COR – coreference marker

The enclitic wɛ̄ (and its form wɛ̄.dâˀ) that attaches to verbs to index coreference with a preceding subject, especially in biclausal constructions.

biclausal, same subject

pʰôˀ.xɛ̄-pʰō mī.mɔ̂ tâ dɔ̄ˀ tʰîˀ=wɛ̄ mɨ̂.xā tə-ɣà
orphan dream thing and see=COR fairy one-CLF
“The orphan dreamed and (he) saw a fairy.”

biclausal, same subject with contrast

təblɔ̄.blɔ̄ lā kə-kʰīˀ təblɔ̄.blɔ̄ lā kə-kəpɔ̀=wɛ̄
sometimes moon IRR-be.dark sometimes moon IRR-be.light=COR
“Sometimes the moon is dark, sometimes it is shining.”

in relative clause

tʰī.klō lə̄ pɣà-tɛ̄-tâ tə-ɣà pɔ̂=wɛ̄ məhā.kə̀ˀ
river REL person-speak-thing one-CLF swim=COR yesterday
“a river in which the speaker swam yesterday”

in simple clause (emphatic)

mê ʔə-θē=wɛ̄ lɔ̀
yes 3-ABIL=COR FACT.FP
“Of course (he) can.” (emphatic confirmation)

WD – wɛ̄.dâˀ

A combined form of the coreference marker wɛ̄ and the exclusive marker dâˀ. Very common in colloquial language, used even in simple clauses where coreference isn't the main function. Less restricted than plain wɛ̄.

simple clause, first person

jə-ʔôˀ=wɛ̄.dâˀ lə̄ jò.kɔ̂ nêˀ jìˀ=wɛ̄.dâˀ ʔə-nîˀ tə-sʰī lī
1s-EXIST=WD GNR.P Thailand that last=WD 3x-year one-ten NS
“I've lived in Thailand for ten years already.”

with different subject, no coreference issue

pòˀ.mɨ̂ˀ nêˀ hêˀ=wɛ̄.dâˀ lìˀ sʰū ʔə-mô ʔôˀ lɔ̀
woman that give=WD book ALL.P 3x-mother LOC.N FACT.FP
“A woman is giving a book to her mother.”

narrative context

dɔ̄ˀ pʰɛ̄.nêˀ nêˀ θərâˀ nêˀ tə̀.lɔ̀=wɛ̄.dâˀ ʔə-sē lə̄ ʔə-kʰɔ̂ˀ.tʰīˀ
and then that teacher that drop=WD 3x-money GNR.P 3x-ground
“And then the teacher dropped the money on the ground.”

sentence-final particles (FP)

A cover term for the rich system of sentence-final particles that express pragmatic meanings, epistemic stance, and illocutionary force. These are among the most distinctive features of Mainland Southeast Asian languages.

FACT – factive

The particle lɔ̀ indicating a factual statement the speaker is certain about. The most common declarative sentence ender in written and formal contexts.

jə-mê pɣà-ɣɛ̀.kəlîˀ-pʰō tə-ɣà lɔ̀
1s-COP dancer one-CLF FACT.FP
“I am a dancer.” (a plain statement of fact)

in narrative

məhā.kə̀ˀ jə-pʰɔ̄-ʔɔ̂ˀ klɔ̂-ɲâˀ lɔ̀
yesterday 1s-cook-eat cow-meat FACT.FP
“Yesterday I cooked beef.” (reporting a fact)

formal variant nêˀ.lɔ̀

lə̄ tâ.ʔôˀ.θāˀ dīˀ.ʔì ʔə-pù nêˀ pə-sīˀ θē lə̄ ... nêˀ.lɔ̀
GNR.P situation like.this 3x-inside that 1p-say ABIL QUOT ... FP
“In a situation like this, we can say ...” (from a book of proverbs)

PQ – polar question

The particle ɦā marking yes-no questions. Its tone is often overwritten by question intonation.

nə-ʔɛ̂ˀ.dōˀ ʔɔ̄ kʰɔ̂ˀ.pʰī ɦā
2s-want drink coffee PQ
“Do you want to drink coffee?”

in alternative questions

pɣà ʔôˀ lə̄ nə-wê pù mê pɣà.kəɲɔ̄ ɦā pəjɔ̀ ɦā
person EXIST GNR.P 2sx-city inside COP Karen PQ Burmese PQ
“Are the people living in your town Karen or Burmese?”

with politeness particle sê

nə-ʔɛ̂ˀ.dōˀ lòˀ.kwɛ̄ dɔ̄ˀ pəwɛ̄ sê ɦā
2s-want play with 1pi also PQ
“Do you want to play with us?” (softer, more polite)

CQ – content question

The particle lɛ̂ˀ marking wh-questions. Occurs with question words like mənɨ̀ "what," mətəɣà "who."

nə-mà mənɨ̀ lɛ̂ˀ
2s-do what CQ
“What are you doing?”

with who

mətəɣà kɨ̂ tâ lɛ̂ˀ
who burn thing CQ
“Who is burning something?”

with why

pâ ɦə̄ bâˀ.mənɨ̀ lə̄ pə-bâˀ mà-ʔɔ̂ˀ kʰɨ̄ˀ lɛ̂ˀ
father VOC why COMP 1p-must do-eat hill.field CQ
“Father, why do we need to do rotational farming?”

question words that incorporate lɛ̂ˀ

pʰɛ̄-lɛ̂ˀ [LOC.P-CQ] “where”
dīˀ-lɛ̂ˀ [be.like-CQ] “how”
kʰɛ̄-lɛ̂ˀ [moment?-CQ] “when”
sʰīˀ-jì lɛ̂ˀ [be.small-be.far CQ] “how far”

AGR – agreement-soliciting

The particle nɔ̀ (or nɔ̄) used to seek the addressee's agreement, often translated as "right?" "okay?" or with rising intonation in English.

seeking agreement

tʃɔ̄ kə-lɛ̀ ʔôˀ.kʰōˀ nà lə̄.nêˀ xɨ̄ nâˀ.rîˀ nɔ̄
eB IRR-go wait 2si there six hour AGR.FP
“I'll go wait for you there at six o'clock, okay?”

statement expecting agreement

ʔəwɛ̄.dâˀ kɛ̄ pɣô nɔ̄
3 act.asCOP Pwo AGR.FP
“He's Pwo.” (right? you agree?)

in narrative (engaging listener)

tâ tɛ̄=wɛ̄.dâˀ tə-blɔ̄ nêˀ nɔ̄ pɣà dɔ̄-tì-dɔ̄-θəkōˀ ʔôˀ=wɛ̄.dâˀ kʰī ɣà
thing tell=WD one-time that AGR.FP person RLN-friend-RLN-friend EXIST=WD two CLF
“Once upon a time (you know?), there were two friends.”

ATT – attenuative

The particle mɔ̀ (or mɔ̂ˀ) softening a statement or command, making it less authoritative and more polite. Often used when the speaker doesn't want to be too direct.

softening a statement

ʔə-tə-ʔɔ̂ˀ tâ-pʰīˀ-tâ-ɲâˀ bâˀ mɔ̀
3-NEG-eat thing-skin-thing-meat NEG.FP ATT.FP
“They don't eat meat, you see.” (softening the statement)

softening a response

A: nə-θā lɛ̀ pɣè-ʔɔ̂ˀ mətà lɛ̂ˀ
2s-intend go buy-eat what CQ
“What do you intend to buy?”

B: jə-θā lɛ̀ pɣè-ʔɔ̂ˀ ɲâˀ.pʰō təsɛ̄ˀ ɦɛ̂ (with ATT nuance)
1s-intend go buy-eat fish a.little FACT.FP
“I was thinking of buying some fish.” (not insisting)

softening a command

hɛ̄ lə̄-ʔì tə-sô mɔ̂ˀ
come GNR.P-this one-moment ATT.FP
“Come here for a moment, would you?” (polite request)

OPT – optative

The particle təkê expressing wishes, hopes, or polite commands. From tə- "one" + kê "small portion."

wish

kâˀ-ʔɔ̂ˀ-nê jà lə̄ tâ.ɲâˀ tə-lôˀ təkê
roast-eat-BEN 1si GNR.P meat one-lump OPT.FP
“Please roast a piece of meat for me.”

polite command

bīˀ-lɔ̀ pənɔ̄.klɛ̄-θâˀ ʔə-tʰī nêˀ lə̄ sʰɔ̄-ɲâˀ-kəθū ʔə-pù təkê
squeeze-DOWN lime-fruit 3x-water that GNR.P chicken-meat-curry 3x-inside OPT.FP
“Squeeze the lime into the chicken curry, please.”

with optative marker mɔ̀

mɔ̀ pəwɛ̄ xɨ̄-tʰîˀ-nê-θəkōˀ tâ tə-kʰā lə̄ pə-mà ʔɔ̀ mɨ̀ˀ təkê
OPT 1pe search-see-get-SOC thing one-CLF REL 1p-do 3i be.enjoyable OPT.FP
“May we find something that we enjoy doing.”

PROH – prohibitive

The combination təbâˀ ... təɣè used for negative commands. təbâˀ is from tə- NEG + bâˀ "must," and təɣè is from tə- NEG + ɣè "be good."

təbâˀ hɨ̂ˀ tâ təɣè
PROH steal thing NEG.OPT
“Don't steal.”

with specific prohibition

təbâˀ tʰôˀ.θətrɔ̀ nə-θāˀ dɔ̄ˀ pɣà ʔəɣà nɔ̄.təblɔ̄ təɣè
PROH compare 2sx-heartREFL with person other never NEG.OPT
“Never compare yourself with others.”

with 2nd person pronoun

nə-təbâˀ sɛ̄ˀ.kʰī tələ̄ təɣè
2s-PROH be.late too.much NEG.OPT
“Don't be too late.”

without təɣè (less common)

kôˀ.rôˀ.nâˀ ʔə-sʰə̄.kətɔ̂ nêˀ təbâˀ sʰêˀ.nɔ̀ būˀ~būˀ-lòˀ.θāˀ bâˀ
corona 3x-time that PROH sit be.near-RECP NEG.FP
“In corona times, don't sit so close to each other.”

SUPP – suppositive

The particle θə̂ˀ (variants ɲə̂ˀ~jə̂ˀ) indicating that the speaker presumes or supposes the statement to be true. Often translated as "surely," "must be," "I suppose."

jə-pʰō.dôˀ ʔə-hîˀ ʔôˀ-būˀ dɔ̄ˀ nə-hîˀ ʔəxō nə-kə-tʰîˀ ʔɔ̀ kʰɛ̄.ʔì.kʰɛ̄.ʔì θə̂ˀ
1sx-nephew 3x-house EXIST-be.near with 2sx-house because 2s-IRR-see 3i often SUPP.FP
“Since my nephew's village is near yours, you must see him often (I suppose).”

with certainty

ʔā ɣà māˀ dɔ̄ˀ pjɔ̂ˀ lɔ̀ θə̂ˀ
many CLF INTS then be.fun FACT.FP SUPP.FP
“A lot of people will be more fun, huh?” (surely)

variant ɲə̂ˀ

nə-kə-tʰîˀ ʔɔ̀ θə̂ˀ / ɲə̂ˀ
2s-IRR-see 3i SUPP.FP
“You'll see him, I'm sure.”

CONF – confirmative

The particle ɦɔ̀ used to confirm or guarantee that a command will be fulfilled, or in questions expressing surprise.

command with confirmation

dō-nê jà tâ.ɣɔ̀ tə-bêˀ ɦɔ̀
strike-BEN 1si picture one-CLF CONF.FP
“Take a picture of me, won't you? (I'm counting on it)”

promise

mə-hɛ̄ dɔ̄ˀ hɛ̄ hāˀ.ʔôˀ-kɔ̄ˀ jà ɦɔ̀
COND-come then come visit-SOC 1si CONF.FP
“If you come, you'll come visit me, right? (you promise?)”

surprise question

nə-tô.də̄ hā.mâ ɦɔ̂
2sx-wallet be.lost CONF.Q
“You lost your wallet?!” (surprised)

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