Part 3 · nominal categories

classifiers (CLF)

A morpheme that accompanies numerals to individuate nouns. Classifiers categorize nouns based on inherent properties. Sgaw Karen has sortal classifiers (based on intrinsic features) and mensural classifiers (units of measure). The classifier always follows a numeral.

basic classifier phrase

tʰwîˀ tə-dɨ̄ ʔì
dog one-CLF(ANIM) this
“this dog”

lìˀ kʰī bêˀ
book two CLF(2D)
“two books”

1D – one-dimensional

The classifier bō for long, saliently one-dimensional objects: sticks, poles, snakes, roads, rivers, strings, strands of hair.

klɛ̄ kʰī bō
road two CLF(1D)
“two roads”

ɣɨ̂ tə-bō
snake one-CLF(1D)
“a snake”

plì θə̄ bō
string three CLF(1D)
“three strings”

extended use (abstract)

klɛ̄ lə̄ pə-hɛ̄ tə-bō
way REL 1p-come one-CLF(1D)
“the way we came” (method/path)

2D – two-dimensional

The classifier bêˀ for flat, saliently two-dimensional objects: books, leaves, clothing, fields, birds, turtles, crabs.

objects

lìˀ kʰī bêˀ
book two CLF(2D)
“two books”

sʰē.kà tə-bêˀ
shirt one-CLF(2D)
“a shirt”

animals

sʰɔ̄ tə-bêˀ
chicken one-CLF(2D)
“a chicken”

kʰlīˀ θə̄ bêˀ
turtle three CLF(2D)
“three turtles”

geographical

kɔ̂ tə-bêˀ
country one-CLF(2D)
“a country”

kɔ̄ˀ tə-bêˀ
island one-CLF(2D)
“an island”

3D – three-dimensional

The classifier pʰlə̂ˀ for round or saliently three-dimensional objects: fruits, balls, buildings, villages, mountains, words.

objects

θəkwī kʰī pʰlə̂ˀ
banana two CLF(3D)
“two bananas”

kʰāˀ tə-pʰlə̂ˀ
chair one-CLF(3D)
“a chair”

constructions

wê tə-pʰlə̂ˀ
city one-CLF(3D)
“a city”

θəwɔ̄ θə̄ pʰlə̂ˀ
village three CLF(3D)
“three villages”

abstract

tâ.kətò tə-pʰlə̂ˀ
word/phrase one-CLF(3D)
“a word/phrase”

lìˀ.mɛ̀ˀ.pʰlə̂ˀ ʔì
letter/character this
“this letter (of the alphabet)”

ANIM – animate

The classifier dɨ̄ for non-human animate entities: animals, demons, spirits, and culturally significant objects like bronze drums.

animals

tʰwîˀ kʰī dɨ̄
dog two CLF(ANIM)
“two dogs”

kəsʰɔ̄ tə-dɨ̄
elephant one-CLF(ANIM)
“an elephant”

spiritual beings

tâ.nā tə-dɨ̄
demon/wizard one-CLF(ANIM)
“a demon/spirit”

cultural objects

klôˀ tə-dɨ̄
bronze.drum one-CLF(ANIM)
“a bronze drum” (considered animate in traditional belief)

Buddha images

pʰərâˀ kʰī dɨ̄
Buddha.image two CLF(ANIM)
“two Buddha images”

HUM – human

The classifier ɣà for human referents: people of all ages, statuses, and occupations.

pɣà kʰī ɣà
person two CLF(HUM)
“two people”

θərâˀ tə-ɣà
teacher one-CLF(HUM)
“a teacher”

sɔ̀.pà lwî ɣà
king four CLF(HUM)
“four kings”

pʰō.θâˀ jɛ̂ ɣà
child five CLF(HUM)
“five children”

with human-like beings

kəlūˀ tə-ɣà
angel one-CLF(HUM)
“an angel”

GNR – generic

The classifier kʰā for abstract things, concepts, and generic reference. Used with tâ "thing" and nominalized verbs.

with tâ "thing"

tâ kʰī kʰā
thing two CLF(GNR)
“two things”

tâ tə-kʰā ʔì
thing one-CLF this
“this thing”

with nominalized verbs

tâ-hêˀ tə-kʰā
thing-give one-CLF
“a gift”

tâ-tʰîˀ tə-kʰā
thing-see one-CLF
“an opinion, a view”

with pieces

sʰɔ̄-ɲâˀ tə-kʰā
chicken-meat one-CLF
“a piece of chicken”

quantifiers and intensifiers

COLL – collective

The marker təpʰâˀ (a fossilized classifier phrase) indicating plural reference to a group. Unlike a simple plural, it emphasizes the collection as a unit.

with humans

pʰō.θâˀ təpʰâˀ nêˀ lɔ̀.dō mè
child COLL that starve rice
“The children are starving.” (the group of children)

with inanimates

ʔəwɛ̄ lū θêˀ təpʰâˀ ʔə-tʰī mɨ̄.kə̀ˀ lɔ̀
3 pour tree COLL 3x-water just.now FACT.FP
“He just watered the plants.” (all the plants as a group)

interrogative with plural reference

tâ ʔì tâ mənɨ̀ təpʰâˀ lɛ̂ˀ
thing this thing what COLL CQ
“What are these things?” (plural)

combined form θêˀ.təpʰâˀ (more colloquial)

ʔəwɛ̄.θêˀ θêˀ.təpʰâˀ mê pɣà lə̄ ʔə-tâ.lɛ̀.kʰɔ̄.pʰlō ʔā-nê pɣà
3.PL PL.COLL COP person REL 3x-experience be.many-CMPR 1pi
“They are people who have more experience than us.”

INTS – intensifier

Various markers that intensify the meaning of descriptive verbs:

māˀ – very, extremely (from "be hard/solid")

wîˀ-māˀ [be.tasty-INTS] “very delicious”
dôˀ-māˀ [be.big-INTS] “very big”
nāˀ-māˀ [be.severe-INTS] “very severe/terrible”

pə-ʔɔ̂ˀ mè wîˀ-māˀ lɔ̀
1p-eat rice be.tasty-INTS FACT.FP
“We enjoyed our food greatly.”

pʰāˀ – very (with dimensional adjectives: big, long, deep, etc.)

pʰāˀ-dôˀ [INTS-be.big] “big”
pʰāˀ-tʰɔ̄ [INTS-be.long] “long/tall”
pʰāˀ-jòˀ [INTS-be.deep] “deep”

jə-tʰîˀ hîˀ pʰāˀ-dôˀ məhā.kə̀ˀ
1s-see house INTS-be.big yesterday
“I saw a big house yesterday.”

ɲā – very, extremely (often combines with other intensifiers)

pʰāˀ-dôˀ ɲā [INTS-be.big INTS] “extremely big”
sʰɣôˀ ɲā [be.hard INTS] “very hard”

xɔ̀-θâˀ ʔə-bêˀ sʰɣôˀ ɲā
coconut-fruit 3x-skin be.hard INTS
“The coconut skin is very hard.”

kəlɛ̀ˀ – very (with reduplicated verbs)

ɣɔ̀.ɣɔ̀-kəlɛ̀ˀ [be.early(RDP)-INTS] “very early”
nāˀ.nāˀ-kəlɛ̀ˀ [be.severe(RDP)-INTS] “very severe”

pʰlā lə̄ ʔəwɛ̄ sʰōˀ.kē nāˀ.nāˀ-kəlɛ̀ˀ lɔ̀
appear COMP 3s be.ill be.severe(RDP)-INTS FACT.FP
“He looks seriously ill.”

rāˀ – really (Northern Thailand variety)

sɔ̄ rāˀ [be.clean INTS] “really clean”
kô rāˀ [be.hot INTS] “really hot”

θē.xə̀ lɔ̄.kʰɔ̄ sɔ̄ rāˀ
wash dish be.clean INTS
“(You) cleaned the dishes really well.”

θī – really, extremely (from "die") (colloquial, Kayin–Tak)

sʰûˀ θī [be.strong INTS] “really strong”
ɣè θī [be.good INTS] “really good”

jə-pā nêˀ ʔə-ɣî sʰûˀ θī
1sx-father that 3x-root be.strong INTS
“My father is really strong!”

EXT – extent

The particle nɔ̄ meaning "as much as, to the extent of." Used exclusively in negative contexts. Combined with tə- "one," it creates expressions meaning "none, never, nowhere."

Common EXT phrases:

nɔ̄ tə-ɣà = “nobody” (EXT one-CLF.HUM)
nɔ̄ tə-mì = “nothing” (EXT one-kind)
nɔ̄ tə-blɔ̄ = “never” (EXT one-time)
nɔ̄ tə-tɔ̀ = “nowhere” (EXT one-place)
nɔ̄ tə-sɛ̄ˀ = “not at all” (EXT one-bit)

jə-tə-θêˀ.ɲā ʔɔ̀ nɔ̄ tə-mì bâˀ
1s-NEG-know 3i EXT one-kind NEG.FP
“I don't know anything about it/him.”

with "never"

lɔ̀.ɣàˀ lə̄ nə-dɔ̄.pɨ̂.wɛ̂-kʰwā pʰāˀ lìˀ tə-wì nɔ̄ tə-bêˀ bâˀ
resemble COMP 2sx-sibling-M read book NEG-finish EXT one-CLF(2D) NEG.FP
“It seems like your brother never finishes any books.”

with "nowhere"

jə-kə-lɛ̀ tə-ʔôˀ nɔ̄ tə-tɔ̀ bâˀ
1s-IRR-go NEG-EXIST EXT one-place NEG.FP
“I will go nowhere / I won't go anywhere.”

SUPL – superlative

The marker kətə̂ (from the verb "end, finish") following descriptive verbs to indicate the highest degree. Often followed by a classifier phrase meaning "the one."

attributive

tâ.lɔ̂ ʔə-ɣè-kətə̂ tə-pù
place 3-be.good-SUPL one-place
“the best place”

kɔ̄ˀ lə̄ ʔə-lɛ̂-kətə̂ tə-bêˀ
island REL 3-be.wide-SUPL one-CLF(2D)
“the widest island”

predicative

tâ-bôˀ tə-bôˀ ʔì ʔə-dôˀ-kətə̂ lɔ̀
thing-wrap one-wrap this 3-be.big-SUPL FACT.FP
“This package is the biggest.”

with humans

tʃō.pʰō lə̄ ʔə-ɲā.bɔ̂ˀ-kətə̂ nêˀ mê mətəɣà lɛ̂ˀ
student REL 3-be.young-SUPL that COP who CQ
“Who is the youngest student?”

meaning "extremely" (no comparison)

mê tâ lə̄ ʔə-rē.dôˀ-kətə̂ lɔ̀
COP thing REL 3-be.important-SUPL FACT.FP
“It is an extremely important thing.” (as important as it gets)

CMPR – comparative

The marker nê following descriptive verbs to compare two referents. Creates a transitive verb compound where the comparee is the subject and the standard is the object.

basic comparison

jə-mɛ̀ˀ.sʰûˀ tʰɔ̄-nê jə-kʰôˀ.sʰûˀ
1sx-eyelash be.long-CMPR 1sx-hair
“My eyelashes are longer than my hair.”

with continuative dīˀ

jə-tʃɔ̄ nêˀ kə̂ˀ-nê-dīˀ jà lɔ̀
1sx-eB that be.lazy-CMPR-CONT 1si FACT.FP
“My older brother is still lazier than me.”

with measure phrase

ʔə-θāˀ.pɣâ-nê ʔɔ̀ lwî nîˀ
3-be.old-CMPR 3i four year
“He is four years older than her.”

comparing the same referent over time (with ʔə-lɔ̂ "its place")

tâ.sʰā.θətròˀ ʔì ʔə.xō tâ-lɨ̂.ʔɔ̂ˀ nɔ̂.kʰō θāˀ.θəmū ʔə-tâ.ʔôˀ.θāˀ kɔ̄.kʰɛ̄ dôˀ-nê ʔə-lɔ̂
pandemic this because living situation life 3x-situation be.difficult be.big-CMPR 3x-place
“Due to the pandemic, making a living became more difficult than before.”

EXC – excessive degree

Markers indicating that something is "too much" or exceeds what is desirable or appropriate.

kɛ̂ˀ.sʰōˀ – excessively, beyond what is fit

tâ.mà ʔā-kɛ̂ˀ.sʰōˀ jə-mà tə-pɣɛ̀ bâˀ
work be.many-EXC 1s-do NEG-be.full NEG.FP
“The work is too great, I cannot do it.”

kəθū ʔì hɔ̄-kɛ̂ˀ.sʰōˀ
curry this be.salty-EXC
“This curry is too salty.”

tələ̄ – exceed, too much (more common in modern language)

θûˀ ʔôˀ lə̄ kʰôˀ.θâˀ-lò nāˀ-tələ̄
louse EXIST GNR.P head-surface be.severe-EXC
“Too many lice on your head.” (more than is tolerable)

təbâˀ mī sʰō~sʰō-tələ̄ təɣè
PREV sleep be.early(RDP)-EXC NEG.OPT
“Don't sleep too early.”

tâ mê kô-tələ̄ kəpìˀ kə-xē.tʰɔ̄ kʰlē dɔ̄ˀ kə-tɛ̀.pʰāˀ bâˀ.pʰɨ̄ˀ
thing if be.hot-EXC clay IRR-dry.up be.fast and IRR-crack might
“If it is too hot, the clay will dry quickly and might crack.”

təsɛ̄ˀ – a bit (often implies "a bit too" in context)

tʰɔ̄ təsɛ̄ˀ “a bit too long”
sʰīˀ təsɛ̄ˀ “a bit too small”

nominalizing and relational markers

NMLZ – nominalizer

The noun tâ "thing" used to derive nouns from verbs and clauses. This is one of the most productive word-formation strategies in Sgaw Karen.

from intransitive verbs

tâ-mī [NMLZ-sleep] “sleep (n.)”
tâ-kəsʰɣɔ̄ [NMLZ-be.clean] “cleanliness”
tâ-kʰīˀ [NMLZ-be.dark] “darkness”

from transitive verbs, emphasizing result

tâ-bôˀ [NMLZ-wrap] “package, wrap (n.)”
tâ-θāˀ.wîˀ [NMLZ-sing] “song”

from transitive verbs with object, emphasizing action

tâ-sʰɛ̄ˀ-kəθîˀ.dɔ̄.θədə̄ [NMLZ-stab-vaccine] “vaccination”
tâ-tē-klɛ̄ [NMLZ-create-road] “road construction”
tâ-mà.lō-lìˀ [NMLZ-study-book] “studying”

with possessive prefix

jə-tâ-θāˀ.kʰɨ̄ [1sx-NMLZ-be.happy] “my happiness”

LOC.N – locative noun

A subclass of relator nouns that specify location. These are possessed by a preceding NP and often combined with prepositions. They function like postpositions in English.

Complete list of common locative relator nouns:

RN	Meaning	Example
pù	inside (< 'hole')	lə̄ hîˀ ʔə-pù “inside the house”
kʰlə̄	outside (< 'back')	lə̄ hîˀ kʰlə̄ “outside the house”
kʰī	behind, after	lə̄ jə-kʰī “behind me”
kəpà	beside	lə̄ θêˀ ʔə-kəpà “beside the tree”
mɛ̀ˀ.ɲā	in front of	lə̄ nə-mɛ̀ˀ.ɲā “in front of you”
pʰɔ̄.kʰôˀ	above	lə̄ hîˀ ʔə-pʰɔ̄.kʰôˀ “above the house”
pʰɔ̄.làˀ	below, under	lə̄ nə-pʰɔ̄.làˀ “under/below you”
lò	on top of	lə̄ səbɣɛ̄ lò “on the table”
bə̂ˀ.sə̀	between	lə̄ nɔ̄ kʰī pʰlə̂ˀ ʔə-bə̂ˀ.sə̀ “between the two palaces”
klā	among, midst	lə̄ ʔəwɛ̄.θêˀ ʔə-klā “among them”
kəsʰūˀ	between	lə̄ tʃō dɔ̄ˀ tâ.sʰā.hîˀ ʔə-kəsʰūˀ “between the school and hospital”
ʔôˀ	location (with humans)	sʰū jə-ʔôˀ “to me (my place)”

basic locative construction

jə-ʔôˀ lə̄ hîˀ kʰlə̄
1s-EXIST GNR.P house outside
“I am outside the house.”

with possessive prefix (optional)

lə̄ dɛ̄ xāˀ.θī ʔə-pù
GNR.P hut be.dilapidated 3x-inside
“in a dilapidated hut”

with abstract meaning (cautiously)

ʔəwɛ̄.θêˀ lɛ̀=wɛ̄ lə̄ tâ-pəlɔ̂.pədɔ̄-θāˀ ʔə-pù
3.PL go=COR GNR.P thing-beware-heart 3x-inside
“They went cautiously.” (lit., “in cautiousness”)

with human goal (using ʔôˀ)

bâˀ.θêˀ.θêˀ ʔə-kə-kwɛ̄ˀ lìˀ sʰū jə-ʔôˀ
maybe 3-IRR-write letter ALL.P 1sx-LOC.N
“Maybe he will write a letter to me.”

RLN – relational marker (ELAB)

A cover term for the elements that form coordinate compounds in elaborate expressions. Often these are semantically void but structurally necessary. In the glosses, this appears as ELAB for "elaborate expression morpheme."

with ELAB morpheme ɦò

nîˀ-ɦò-lā-ɦò
year-ELAB-month-ELAB
“years and months” (i.e., a long time)

klôˀ-ɦò-sē-ɦò
drum-ELAB-silver-ELAB
“wealth” (lit., drums and silver)

in context

pə-ʔôˀ tʰɛ̄ θêˀ-ɦò-wâˀ-ɦò
1p-EXIST only tree-ELAB-bamboo-ELAB
“There were only trees (and bamboo).”

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