Part 4 · syntactic functions

clause-level roles

A – subject of a transitive verb

The agent or most agent-like argument of a two-argument clause. In SVO order, A precedes the verb.

[pòˀ.kʰwā]A ʔɔ̄ tʰī
man drink water
“The man drinks water.”

[sʰɔ̄]A hɨ̄ dîˀ
chicken brood egg
“The hen is brooding eggs.”

S – subject of an intransitive verb

The single argument of a one-argument clause.

[pòˀ.mɨ̂ˀ]S hɔ̂ˀ
woman cry
“The woman is crying.”

[tʃɔ̄]S kə-mī.lɔ̀ lə̄ sɨ̀ˀ pù
eB IRR-lie.down GNR.P hammock inside
“I (older brother) will lie down in the hammock.”

P – patient, object

The patient or most patient-like argument of a transitive verb. In unmarked order, P follows the verb.

ʔɔ̄ [tʰī]P
drink water
“drinks water”

jə-pʰāˀ [lìˀ]P
1s-read book
“I read a book”

with ditransitive (recipient-theme order)

hêˀ [jà]IO [lìˀ]DO
give 1si book
“Give me a book.”

prepositions and adpositions

LOC.P – locative preposition

The preposition pʰɛ̄ "at, in, on" used for location, especially with time expressions and specific places.

location

pɣà lə̄ ʔə-ʔôˀ pʰɛ̄ tʰī.klō kə̂.nì təpʰâˀ
person REL 3-EXIST LOC.P river bank COLL
“The people who lived on the river bank.”

time

pʰɛ̄ xōˀ nâˀ.rîˀ
LOC.P eight hour
“at eight o'clock”

pʰɛ̄ lā ʔē.pʰrêˀ
LOC.P month April
“in April”

in adverbs

pʰɛ̄-ʔì [LOC.P-this] “here”
pʰɛ̄-nêˀ [LOC.P-that] “there”

ALL.P – allative preposition

The preposition sʰū "to" indicating direction toward a goal, especially with animate goals and place names. Can be used interchangeably with lə̄ in many contexts, but is often considered more proper.

with place

pə-kə-lɛ̀ sʰū bɔ̄.kɔ̄ˀ
1p-IRR-go ALL.P Bangkok
“We will go to Bangkok.”

with animate goal, using locative noun ʔôˀ

bâˀ.θē.θē ʔə-kə-kwɛ̄ˀ lìˀ sʰū jə-ʔôˀ
maybe 3-IRR-write letter ALL.P 1sx-LOC.N
“Maybe he will write a letter to me.” (to my place)

with person

jə-lɛ̀ sʰū ʔə-ʔôˀ kʰlɨ̄ˀ
1s-go ALL.P 3x-LOC.N be.free
“I have time to go to him.”

GNR.P – generic preposition

The multifunctional preposition lə̄ used for location, source, goal, instrument, and oblique arguments. Its most basic meaning is "at, from, to." It is the most frequent word in the Sgaw Karen corpus.

location

sē ʔôˀ lə̄ tô-tʰə̂ˀ pù
money EXIST GNR.P coin-bag inside
“The money is in the wallet.”

source – "from"

jə-ʔôˀ-hɛ̄ lə̄ wê-kî.mɛ̄
1s-EXIST-come GNR.P city-Chiang.Mai
“I come from Chiang Mai.”

goal – "to"

pə-kə-lɛ̀ lə̄ bɔ̄.kɔ̄ˀ
1p-IRR-go GNR.P Bangkok
“We will go to Bangkok.”

instrument

tâ ʔə-bâˀ lɛ̀ lə̄ ʔə-kʰɔ̂ˀ
thing 3-be.correct go GNR.P 3x-foot/leg
“The right (deed) goes on foot.” (from a proverb)

oblique argument in ditransitive

dɨ̄ˀ-ʔɔ̂ˀ-kədɔ̄ˀ ʔɔ̀ lə̄ θəkʰɔ̄ˀ-θâˀ
CAUS-eat-again 3i GNR.P mango
“Feed them mangoes again.”

COM – comitative marker

The preposition dɔ̄ˀ "with" used for accompaniment and instruments. Also functions as a conjunction "and" and a verbal modifier "again."

accompaniment

tɛ̄ tâ dɔ̄ˀ nà kʰɛ̄.kòˀ mâˀ nɔ̀
speak thing with 2si in.a.while INTS AGR.FP
“Talk to you later.” (lit., “speak with you”)

instrument

jə-kə-lɛ̀ dɔ̄ˀ lêˀ-mêˀ.ʔū
1s-IRR-go with cart-fire
“I will go by train.”

as conjunction "and"

jə-mō dɔ̄ˀ jə-pā nêˀ lɔ̀.pʰāˀ-lɔ̀ˀ.θāˀ lɔ̀
1sx-mother and 1sx-father that separate-RECP FACT.FP
“My mother and father got divorced.”

as verbal modifier "again"

jə-kə-mà.lō lìˀ dɔ̄ˀ
1s-IRR-study book again
“I am going to study again.”

subordination and clause linking

COMP – complementizer

The subordinator lə̄ introducing complement clauses. Follows complement-taking verbs like "think," "say," "believe," "know."

with cognitive verb

jə-sʰō.môˀ lə̄ ʔə-kwɛ̄ˀ lìˀ.pərə̄
1s-think COMP 3-write letter
“I think he's writing a letter.”

with utterance verb

jə-tɛ̄ jə-mō lə̄ nə-kə-lɛ̀ dɔ̄ˀ jà ɦā
1s-tell 1sx-mother COMP 2s-IRR-go with 1si PQ
“I asked my mom: 'Will you go with me?'”

with emotive verb

tʰwîˀ.hɔ̂ˀ.kʰôˀ ʔì plì lə̄ kʰē.jɨ̂ kə-ʔɔ̂ˀ ʔɔ̀
fox this fear COMP lion IRR-eat 3i
“The fox was afraid that the lion would eat him.”

omitted in casual speech

jə-tɛ̄-bâˀ ʔɔ̀ jə-kə-lɛ̀ dɔ̄ˀ lêˀ.mêˀ.ʔū lɔ̀
1s-tell-HIT 3i 1s-IRR-go with train FACT.FP
“I told her I will go by train.” (COMP lə̄ omitted)

REL – relative clause marker

The same subordinator lə̄ introducing relative clauses that modify nouns. Can be omitted, especially when the head noun is the subject of the relative clause.

head noun as subject

pɣà lə̄ ʔə-bā θɔ̄.kʰā təpʰâˀ nêˀ sɣà
person REL 3-worship monk COLL that be.few
“The people who worship monks are few.” (Buddhists are few)

head noun as object, with lə̄ present

tâ lə̄ jə-ʔɔ̂ˀ ʔɔ̀ wîˀ
thing REL 1s-eat 3i be.tasty
“things that I like to eat”

head noun as object, lə̄ omitted in frequent collocation

pɣà pɣè kā θə̄ ɣà tə-ɣà nêˀ
person buy car three CLF one-CLF that
“the third person who bought the car”

head noun as location

wê lə̄ nə-ʔôˀ ʔɔ̀ nêˀ
city REL 2s-EXIST 3i that
“the city where you live”

with relator noun lɔ̂ "place"

lɛ̀=wɛ̄ lə̄ tâ.lɔ̂ lə̄ pʰɨ̄.θāˀ.pɣâ mà.θī tʰɔ̄ˀ ʔə-lɔ̂
go=COR GNR.P place REL old.man kill pig 3x-place
“They went to the place where the old man killed the pig.”

PURP – purpose

The relator noun ɣɔ̂ used in purposive clauses meaning "for the sake of, in order to." Often preceded by the subordinator lə̄.

with animate beneficiary

ʔə-pɣè-nê tâ-pʰərə̄.sʰə̂ˀ lə̄ pòˀ.mɨ̂ˀ ʔə-ɣɔ̂ lɔ̀
3-buy-BEN thing-present GNR.P woman 3x-PURP FACT.FP
“He bought a present for the girl.”

with inanimate purpose

tâ mê ʔɛ̂ˀ.dōˀ θū ʔɔ̀ lə̄ nîˀ.tʰɔ̂ˀ.θɔ̄ ʔə-ɣɔ̂ nêˀ
thing if want use 3i GNR.P new.year 3x-PURP that
“If someone wants to use it for the Karen New Year...”

with verb of worry

jə-bâˀ.jôˀ tâ lə̄ ʔə-ɣɔ̂ lɔ̀
1s-worry thing GNR.P 3x-PURP FACT.FP
“I'm worried about him.”

negative purpose – "so that not" with θɨ̄

dī.θōˀ ʔə-θɨ̄ tə-θū klɛ̄ lə̄ θəwɔ̄ kʰī pʰlə̂ˀ ʔì ʔə-bə̂ˀ.sə̀ təɣè
so.that 3-PREV NEG-use road GNR.P village two CLF this 3x-BETWEEN NEG.OPT
“So that they would not use the road between these two villages.”

COND – conditional

The verb mê (from "be true") used to introduce conditional clauses meaning "if, when." Can be reduced to a prefix mə- in some varieties (especially Northern Thailand).

basic conditional

nə-mê ʔɛ̂ˀ.dōˀ lɛ̀ dɔ̄ˀ jà nêˀ hɛ̄ sʰū ʔì kʰlē~kʰlē təkê
2s-if want go with 1si that come ALL.P this be.fast OPT.FP
“If you want to go with me, come here quickly.”

negative conditional

nə-mê tə-lɛ̀ bâˀ nêˀ jə-kə-lɛ̀
2s-if NEG-go NEG.FP that 1s-IRR-go
“If you don't go, I'll go.” (negation on main verb, not on mê)

"when" with certainty

nə-mê pʰlō-tʰɔ̂ˀ tʃō wì ʔə-lɔ̂.kʰī nêˀ nə-kə-mà mənɨ̀ lɛ̂ˀ
2s-if go.through-UP school finish 3x-back that 2s-IRR-do what CQ
“What will you do after you graduate?” (lit., “when you have graduated”)

with reduced prefix (Mae Hong Son)

mə-mɛ̀ˀ.hīˀ nêˀ nɔ̄ kā tə-θē bâˀ
COND-be.drunk that drive car NEG-ABIL NEG.FP
“If/when drunk, (you) cannot drive.”

counterfactual

nə-mê tə-θêˀ.ɲā-sʰō bâˀ nêˀ nə-kə-sʰō.kəmôˀ lə̄ ʔə-kɛ̄ sāˀ.kʰō-kē tə-bêˀ lə̄ ʔə-bâˀ.ʔə̄ dɔ̄ˀ ʔə-lɨ̂-ʔə-pɣè tə-ʔôˀ bâˀ lɔ̀
2s-if NEG-know-be.early NEG.FP that 2s-IRR-think COMP 3-act.as paper-shred one-CLF REL 3-be.dirty and 3x-value NEG-EXIST NEG.FP FACT.FP
“If you hadn't known beforehand, you would have thought it was a dirty shred of paper worth nothing.”

CONC – concessive

Markers bâˀ.sʰâˀ and θənàˀ.kē (or nàˀ.kē) used at the end of concessive clauses meaning "although, even though." Often co-occurs with conditional mê.

with bâˀ.sʰâˀ

ʔə-tʰûˀ mê tə-ʔôˀ ʔā bâˀ.sʰâˀ ʔôˀ ʔə-kəlɨ̀ˀ~kəlɨ̀ˀ lɔ̀
3x-trunk if NEG-EXIST many although EXIST 3x-kind~kind FACT.FP
“Although there weren't many plants, there were several different kinds.”

with θənàˀ.kē

nə-pʰə̄.nɨ̀ˀ lə̂ sʰū tʰə̂ˀ pù bâˀ.sʰâˀ.θənàˀ.kē tʰə̂ˀ tə-hāˀ.ɣɔ̀ bâˀ
2s-put.in stone ALL.P bag inside although bag NEG-break NEG.FP
“Although you put a stone in the bag, it won't break.”

with "even if" (hypothetical)

nə-mê bâˀ lɛ̀-θəɣə̂ dɔ̄ˀ tâ.lɛ̀.kʰɔ̄.pʰlō kɔ̄.kɔ̄.kʰɛ̄.kʰɛ̄ nāˀ.nāˀ.pʰɣɔ̂ˀ.pʰɣɔ̂ˀ tʰɛ̄.lɛ̂ˀ.tʰɛ̄.lɛ̂ˀ bâˀ.sʰâˀ.θənàˀ.kē nêˀ
2s-if must go-meet with experience be.difficult be.tough how.much although that
“No matter how many difficult experiences you might have to face...”

SIM – similative

The relator noun θōˀ used in similative clauses meaning "as, like." Preceded by dīˀ "be like" and followed by a possessed noun or clause.

with clause

dīˀ pɣà kōˀ ɣà dɛ̄ˀ θêˀ.ɲā ʔə-θōˀ
be.like person each CLF each know 3x-SIM
“as everyone knows”

with noun, more literary

ʔə-kê-ʔə-ɣɔ̀ lɔ̀.ɣàˀ dīˀ kɨ̀ ʔə-θōˀ
3x-form-3x-shape resemble be.like mushroom 3x-SIM
“Its shape is like that of a mushroom.”

colloquial equivalent without θōˀ

ʔə-kê-ʔə-ɣɔ̀ lɔ̀.ɣàˀ lə̄ kɨ̀
3x-form-3x-shape resemble GNR.P mushroom
“Its shape is like a mushroom.”

in context

dīˀ jə-mê pâ tə-ɣà ʔə-θōˀ jə-θāˀ.kʰɨ̄ râˀ
be.like 1s-COP father one-CLF 3x-SIM 1s-be.happy INTS
“As a father, I am really happy.”

↩ back to master list · continue to part 5: discourse & pragmatic markers →