Part 2 · grammatical markers on verbs

core verbal prefixes

NEG – negative

The prefix tə- that negates verbs. It attaches before any person marker. Sgaw Karen uses discontinuous negation, meaning tə- on the verb must be accompanied by the clause-final particle bâˀ.

jə-tə-θêˀ.ɲā ʔɔ̀ bâˀ
1s-NEG-know 3i NEG.FP
“I don't know him.” (Both tə- and bâˀ are required.)

with different persons

nə-tə-lɛ̀ bâˀ
2s-NEG-go NEG.FP
“You aren't going.”

ʔə-tə-lɛ̀ bâˀ
3-NEG-go NEG.FP
“He/she/they aren't going.”

pə-tə-lɛ̀ bâˀ
1p-NEG-go NEG.FP
“We aren't going.”

ambiguity without tense marking

jə-tə-lɛ̀ bâˀ
1s-NEG-go NEG.FP
This can mean either:
– “I don't go” (habitual)
– “I won't go” (future)
– “I didn't go” (past — with appropriate context)

IRR – irrealis

The prefix kə- marking non-actualized situations: future events, hypotheticals, intentions, and estimations. It attaches after person markers.

future

kʰā-sʰū-ɲā nêˀ nə-kə-mà mətà lɛ̂ˀ
time-ALL.P-front that 2s-IRR-do what CQ
“What will you do in the future?”

intention

jə-kə-lɛ̀ sʰū tʃō lɔ̀
1s-IRR-go ALL.P school FACT.FP
“I will go to school.” (expressing intention)

hypothetical with "maybe"

bâˀ.təbâˀ ʔə-kə-kwɛ̄ˀ lìˀ sʰū jə-ʔôˀ
maybe 3-IRR-write letter ALL.P 1sx-LOC.N
“Maybe he's writing a letter to me.” (estimation about present)

polite suggestion/question

jə-kə-kà nə-kʰāˀ ɦā
1s-IRR-sit 2sx-chair PQ
“Shall I sit in your chair?”

Important limitation: IRR cannot co-occur with NEG.

CORRECT:
jə-tə-lɛ̀ bâˀ
1s-NEG-go NEG.FP
“I won't go” or “I don't go”

INCORRECT:
*jə-tə-kə-lɛ̀ bâˀ (cannot have both NEG and IRR)
*jə-kə-tə-lɛ̀ bâˀ (order doesn't matter—they cannot co-occur)

DES – desiderative

The verb môˀ expressing desire or wish. It occurs in a special construction with the impersonal pronoun tâ and the reflexive θāˀ. This construction is primarily found in Northern Thailand varieties.

tâ môˀ-mī θāˀ
thingIMPRS DES-sleep heartREFL
“I want to sleep.” (Lit., “The thing wants sleep, (my) heart”)

with specific object

tâ môˀ-ʔɔ̂ˀ jə-θāˀ lə̄ mè
thingIMPRS DES-eat 1sx-heartREFL GNR.P rice
“I want to eat rice.”

negative example

tâ tə-môˀ-kè θāˀ dīˀ bâˀ
thingIMPRS NEG-DES-return heartREFL CONT NEG.FP
“I don't want to go home yet.”

alternative construction (Kayin–Tak variety)

jə-bâˀ.θāˀ pɔ̂ tʰī
1s-want swim water
“I want to swim.”

post-verbal markers and modifiers

ABIL – ability

Markers indicating capability. Sgaw Karen has three main ability verbs with different nuances:

θē – acquired skill, knowledge, permission
kɛ̄ – physical/mental capacity, endurance
nê – successful completion, managing to do something

These occur as V2 in verb sequences or as main verbs taking a clausal subject.

with θē (acquired skill)

jə-pɔ̂.tʰī θē
1s-swim be.skilledABIL
“I can swim (I know how).”

jə-tɛ̄ kəɲɔ̄-klòˀ θē
1s-speak Karen-language be.skilledABIL
“I can speak Karen.”

with kɛ̄ (physical capacity)

nə-kɔ̀ kɛ̄ ɦā
2s-bear ABIL PQ
“Can you bear the pain?” (do you have the strength?)

jə-tə-kɛ̄ lə̀ bâˀ
1s-NEG-ABIL anymore NEG.FP
“I can't (do it) anymore” (I'm exhausted)

with nê (successful completion)

jə-mī tə-nê bâˀ
1s-sleep NEG-getABIL NEG.FP
“I couldn't sleep” (I tried but failed)

nə-sʰā nə-tʰōˀ tə-dɨ̄ nê lī ɦā
2s-sell 2sx-pig one-CLF(ANIM) getABIL NS PQ
“Have you succeeded in selling your pig?”

permission (θē)

jə-sʰə̄.tʰə̂ˀ lə̄ nə-kəpà θē ɦā
1s-stand GNR.P 2sx-side be.skilledABIL PQ
“May I stand beside you?” (am I allowed/permitted?)

HIT – hit, encounter

The multifunctional verb bâˀ is one of the most pervasive morphemes in Sgaw Karen. It has numerous grammaticalized functions:

1. As a main verb (literal meaning)

klō.kʰlī bâˀ=wɛ̄.dâˀ kəmlə̂ tə-ɣà
bullet hit=WD civilian one-CLF(HUM)
“A bullet hit a civilian.”

2. As a modal verb (obligation – "must")

jə-bâˀ lɛ̀ lɔ̀
1s-must go FACT.FP
“I must go.”

3. As an experiential marker ("ever")

nə-dɔ̄ˀ-bâˀ kʰlī tə-blɔ̄~blɔ̄ ɦā
2s-ride-HIT boat one-time~time PQ
“Have you ever ridden a boat?”

4. As an opportunitive marker ("get to")

nə-sē mê ʔôˀ nə-dōˀ-bâˀ kəbɔ̄-jù
2s-money if EXIST 2s-ride-OPP ship-fly
“If you have money, you get to ride an airplane.”

5. As an applicative (adding an affectee)

nə-nì-bâˀ jà ɦā
2s-laugh-HIT 1si PQ
“Are you laughing at me?” (adds “me” as the target)

6. As part of negative construction (final particle)

jə-tə-lɛ̀ bâˀ
1s-NEG-go NEG.FP
“I'm not going.” (final bâˀ completes the negation)

OPP – opportunitive

A specific function of bâˀ indicating that the subject gets the opportunity or permission to do something. Often translates as "get to" or "have the chance to."

nə-sē mê ʔôˀ nə-dōˀ-bâˀ kəbɔ̄-jù
2s-money if EXIST 2s-ride-OPP ship-fly
“If you have money, you get to ride an airplane.”

with permission

nɔ̄.nɔ̄ nɔ̄-bâˀ θō-lêˀ lɔ̀
older.sister drive-OPP oil-cart FACT.FP
“Older sister is allowed to drive the car (by someone).”

with receiving

pɣà lə̄ ʔə-kə-nê-bâˀ jə-pʰō-mɨ̂ˀ
person REL 3-IRR-get-OPP 1sx-daughter
“The one who will get to marry my daughter”

APPR – apprehensive

The marker bâˀ.pʰɨ̄ˀ (from bâˀ "hit" + pʰɨ̄ˀ unknown) indicating that something undesirable might happen. Often translated as "might, could happen that" with a sense of worry or apprehension.

pə-bâˀ.jôˀ lə̄ pə-bɨ̄ təpʰâˀ kə-θī-kwìˀ-bâˀ.pʰɨ̄ˀ
1p-worry COMP 1px-rice.plant COLL IRR-die-AWAY-APPR
“We worry that our rice might die.” (the speaker is anxious about this possibility)

with negation

pʰō-lì lə̄.kʰī tə-sò pʰāˀ-kè-kwɛ̄ˀ-kè ʔə-lìˀ tə-θē-bâˀ.pʰɨ̄ˀ lə̀ bâˀ
child-grandchild later one-generation read-RETURN-write-RETURN 3x-script NEG-ABIL-APPR NEG NEG.FP
“Descendants of the next generation might not be able to read and write the Karen script.” (a feared possibility)

with immediate future

kəθîˀ-kō təpʰâˀ ʔì pàˀ-kè ʔɔ̀ ɣè~ɣè kʰɛ̄.kɔ̀ˀ pʰō.θâˀ kə-ʔɔ̂ˀ-bâˀ bâˀ.pʰɨ̄ˀ
medicine-bottle COLL this put-RETURN 3i be.good next child IRR-eat-HIT might
“Put these bottles back securely lest the children might accidentally consume them.”

valency and voice markers

BEN – benefactive

The marker nê (from the verb "get") that adds a beneficiary argument to a clause. The beneficiary appears as the first object, immediately after the verb complex.

recipient beneficiary

pòˀ.mɨ̂ˀ pɣè-nê pʰō.θâˀ θəkʰɔ̄ˀ.θâˀ
woman buy-BEN child mango
“The woman bought the child a mango.” (the child receives the mango)

plain beneficiary (for someone's benefit)

ʔə-pâ xɨ̄.tʰə̄-nê ʔɔ̀ tâ.lɔ̂ ʔì
3x-father choose-BEN 3i place this
“His father chose this place for him.” (for his benefit)

deputative beneficiary (on someone's behalf)

nə-θī.kwâ-nê jà θē ɦā
2s-ask-BEN 1si be.skilledABIL PQ
“Can you ask (her) on my behalf?” (instead of me asking)

with possessive prefix on object

məhā nêˀ ʔəwɛ̄.θêˀ mà-nê jə-tâ lɔ̀
yesterday that 3.PL do-BEN 1sx-thing FACT.FP
“Yesterday they worked for me.” (literally: “they did my thing for me”)

Regional variant: In Northern Thailand, ʔêˀ is used instead of nê.

wàˀ-ʔêˀ jə-kʰlə̄.xī θē ɦā
scratch-BEN 1sx-back be.skilledABIL PQ
“Can (you) scratch my back for me?”

MAL – malefactive

The same marker nê (or ʔêˀ) used when the added participant is adversely affected. The action is harmful or undesirable for them.

hɔ̂ˀ-nê jà lī
cry-MAL 1si NS
“(The baby) is crying on me already.” (causing me distress)

with darkness (impersonal)

bâˀ.jôˀ lə̄ tâ kə-kʰīˀ-nê ʔɔ̀ təkûˀ.θêˀ
worry COMP thingIMPRS IRR-be.dark-MAL 3i COLL
“(They) worried that darkness would come over them.” (adversely affect them)

with disappearing (cultural loss)

θāˀ.ʔɨ̄ˀ=wɛ̄ lə̄ ʔə-lìˀ.mɛ̀ˀ.pʰlə̂ˀ təpʰâˀ kə-lɔ̀.mâ-nê-kwìˀ ʔɔ̀
be.sad=COR COMP 3x-alphabet COLL IRR-disappear-MAL-AWAY 3i
“(They) were sad that their alphabet would disappear on them.” (to their detriment)

with snake (Northern Thailand variant)

ɣɨ̂ ʔə-kɛ̄-ʔêˀ pə-dā tʰɔ̄.bō
snake 3-act.as-MAL 1px-enemy always
“Snakes are forever our enemy.” (they are harmful to us)

RECP – reciprocal

The marker lòˀ occurring as the last component of a verb compound, indicating that two or more participants act on each other. It is typically followed by the reflexive noun θāˀ "heart."

with two subjects

pɣà dɔ̄-pʰɨ̄-lì kʰī ɣà nêˀ ʔɛ̂ˀ-lòˀ ʔə-θāˀ pʰāˀ-dôˀ ɲā
person COLL-GF-grandchild two CLF that love-RECP 3x-heartREFL INTS-be.big INTS
“That grandfather and grandchild love each other greatly.”

with plural subject

ʔə-mô-ʔə-pâ nêˀ kwâ.tʰwɛ̄-lòˀ θāˀ θē-dīˀ
3x-mother-3x-father that look.after-RECP heartREFL ABIL-CONT
“His parents can still look after each other.”

with descriptive verb

klôˀ təpʰâˀ ʔə-lwɛ̂ lɔ̀.sʰɔ̄-lòˀ ʔə-θāˀ
drum COLL 3x-colour be.different-RECP 3x-heartREFL
“The colours of the drums differ from each other.”

with singular subject + companion (dɔ̄ˀ "with")

nə-θêˀ.ɲā-lòˀ nə-θāˀ dɔ̄ˀ pɣà tə-ɣà nêˀ pʰāˀ-jìˀ lī ɦā
2s-know-RECP 2sx-heartREFL with person one-CLF that INTS-last.long NS PQ
“Have you and that person known each other for quite a long time?”

REFL – reflexive

The noun θāˀ "heart" used as an object coreferential with the subject. Also functions as an anticausative marker with inanimate subjects (events happening spontaneously without an agent).

prototypical reflexive (agent acts on self)

nə-kətɛ̀ˀ.kətɔ̀-pàˀ nə-θāˀ lī ɦā
2s-prepare-putPREP 2sx-heartREFL NS PQ
“Have you already prepared yourself?”

with directional lɔ̀ for emphasis

ʔɛ̂ˀ-lɔ̀ ʔə-θāˀ
love-DOWN 3x-heartREFL
“love oneself”

anticausative (inanimate subject, no agent)

pɛ̄.trɔ̄ nêˀ ʔōˀ.tʰɔ̂ˀ ʔə-θāˀ lɔ̀
window that open 3x-heartREFL FACT.FP
“The window opened (by itself)” or “The window is open.” (no one opened it; it's just in that state)

anticausative with existential verb for resulting state

tʃō ʔì ʔôˀ θûˀ-lɔ̀ ʔə-θāˀ lə̄ tɔ̄.ʔū kɔ̂.rêˀ ʔə-pù
school this EXIST build-DOWN 3x-heartREFL GNR.P Taungoo district 3x-inside
“This school is located in Taungoo District.” (literally: “exists having built itself”)

with intransitive verb (spontaneous event)

tâ.sʰə̄.kətɔ̂ lɛ̀ θāˀ kʰlē māˀ
time go heartREFL be.fast INTS
“Time has gone by quickly.” (time itself moves)

aspectual markers

NS – new situation

The markers lī (affirmative) and lə̀ (negative) indicating that a new situation has emerged, contrasting with a previous state. Often translated as "already," "now," or "anymore."

with activity verb (action has begun)

ʔəwɛ̄ ʔɔ̂ˀ mè lī
3 eat rice NS
“She is eating now/already.” (she wasn't eating before)

with state verb (change of state)

jə-tʰə̂ˀ tə-pʰlə̂ˀ ʔì lɔ̂.lì lī
1sx-bag one-CLF(3D) this be.old NS
“This bag has gotten old.” (it wasn't old before)

with telic verb (completed action)

sɔ̀.pà θī lī
king die NS
“The king has died.” or “The king is dead.” (the change is complete)

negative – "no longer"

ʔəwɛ̄ tə-ʔɔ̂ˀ mè lə̀ bâˀ
3 NEG-eat rice NEG.NS NEG.FP
“She isn't eating anymore.” (she stopped)

with completive verb wì

ʔəwɛ̄ ʔɔ̂ˀ mè wì lī
3 eat rice finish NS
“She has eaten already.” (the eating is finished)

CONT – continuative

The marker dīˀ indicating that a situation is still ongoing or has not yet started. In questions and negatives, it translates as "yet." In affirmatives, it translates as "still."

affirmative – "still"

pə-sʰə̄.tʰə̂ˀ lə̄ pə-kəsâ kʰɔ̂ˀ θē-dīˀ lɔ̀
1p-stand GNR.P 1px-self foot be.able-CONT FACT.FP
“We can still stand on our own.”

negative – "not yet"

mɨ̂ tə-tʰûˀ dīˀ bâˀ
sun NEG-be.vertical CONT NEG.FP
“It's not yet noon.”

interrogative – "yet"

nə-nâ.hū tâ.kəsɔ̂ˀ dīˀ ɦā
2s-hear news CONT PQ
“Have you heard the news yet?”

with irrealis (intention still exists)

jə-kə-kwâ-sʰō.kəmôˀ dīˀ
1s-IRR-look-think CONT
“I'll still consider it.” (the intention remains)

showing contrast with NS

A: mɨ̂ tʰûˀ lī ɦā
sun be.vertical NS PQ
“Is it noon already?”

B: mɨ̂ tə-tʰûˀ dīˀ bâˀ
sun NEG-be.vertical CONT NEG.FP
“It's not yet noon.” (the change hasn't happened)

PRF – perfect

The verb nê "get" used to mark the perfect of persistent situation, indicating how long a state has lasted up to the present.

jə-mà.lō kəɲɔ̄-klòˀ nê tə-nîˀ lī
1s-learn Karen-language getPRF one-year NS
“I have studied Karen for one year now.” (and I still study it)

with temporal phrase

tənì.ʔì jə-hɛ̄ ʔôˀ dɔ̄ˀ nà nê θə̄ nì lī
today 1s-come EXIST with 2si getPRF three day NS
“Today I have been with you for three days already.”

without nê (still grammatical)

nə-hɛ̄ ʔôˀ lə̄ jò-kɔ̂ pʰāˀ.jìˀ lī ɦā
2s-come EXIST GNR.P Thailand last.long NS PQ
“How long have you been in Thailand?” (literally: “You came to Thailand, it has lasted long?”)

with jìˀ "last" as alternative

jə-ʔôˀ=wɛ̄.dâˀ lə̄ jò.kɔ̂ nêˀ jìˀ=wɛ̄.dâˀ ʔə-nîˀ tə-sʰī lī
1s-EXIST=WD GNR.P Thailand that last=WD 3x-year one-ten NS
“I have lived in Thailand for ten years.”

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