Sgaw Karen · Exhaustive List of Function Words

1. Pronouns and Pronominal Markers

jə- 1st person singular prefix (I, me, my)

nə- 2nd person singular prefix (you, your)

ʔə- 3rd person possessive/verbal prefix (his/her/its/their)

pə- 1st person plural prefix (we, us, our)

jà 1st person singular unbound (I, me)

nà 2nd person singular unbound (you)

pɣà 1st person plural unbound (we, us) – also a noun for 'person'

ʔɔ̀ 3rd person singular/plural unbound (him/her/it/them)

θā 3rd person coreferential pronoun, used in indirect discourse

θɨ̄ 2nd person plural (you all)

nəθɨ̄ 2nd person plural (you all) – Kayin–Tak variety

jɛ̄(.dâˀ) 1st person singular emphatic

nɛ̄(.dâˀ) 2nd person singular emphatic

pəwɛ̄(.dâˀ) / pəwɛ̄.θêˀ 1st person plural emphatic

θɨ̄.wɛ̄(.dâˀ) / θɨ̄.wɛ̄.θêˀ 2nd person plural emphatic

ʔəwɛ̄(.dâˀ) 3rd person singular emphatic

θā.wɛ̄(.dâˀ) 3rd person singular emphatic (correferential)

ʔəwɛ̄.θêˀ 3rd person plural emphatic

θā.wɛ̄.θêˀ 3rd person plural emphatic (correferential)

ʔətâ 3rd person inanimate pronoun

θāˀ / kəsâ.θāˀ self (used with possessive prefix: jəθāˀ 'myself')

nɔ̂.kəsâ self (used in oblique phrases)

mətəɣà / mətà who

mənɨ̀ what

2. Verbal Prefixes and Proclitics

tə- Negation

kə- Irrealis (future, hypothetical)

mə- Conditional (if, when) – reduced form of mê

jə- 1st person singular subject

nə- 2nd person singular subject

ʔə- 3rd person subject

pə- 1st person plural subject

wɛ̄ Coreference marker (co-indexes a subject/topic, common in 2nd clause)

wɛ̄.dâˀ Coreference marker (more colloquial, not restricted to 3rd person)

3. Prepositions

lə̄ Generic preposition (at, from, to, with, by means of, in)

sʰū Allative (to, towards) – especially for animate goals

pʰɛ̄ Locative (at, in, on); also temporal 'when'

dɔ̄ˀ Comitative (with); also connective 'and'

xɨ̀.dɔ̄ˀ (along) with (preposition derived from verb + dɔ̄ˀ)

4. Relator Nouns (grammaticalized nouns)

pù inside (of)

kʰlə̄ outside (of)

kʰī behind, after

kəpà beside

mɛ̀ˀ.ɲā in front of

pʰɔ̄.kʰôˀ above

pʰɔ̄.làˀ below, under

lò on top of (surface)

bə̂ˀ.sə̀ between

klā among, amidst

kəsʰūˀ between, middle (physical space)

lɔ̂.kʰī behind, after (temporal)

kʰā time

sʰə̄.kətɔ̂ time

xō reason, because of

ɣɔ̂ purpose, for the sake of

ɣê matter, about

θōˀ as, like (similative)

lɔ̂ instead of, place of

ʔôˀ location (as in 'to his place')

5. Connective and Adverbial Particles

dɔ̄ˀ and, and then (clausal connector)

bâˀ.sʰâˀ but, although

mē.təmê or

mê.ɣè or

sê.kɔ̄ˀ also

nàˀ.kē / θənàˀ.kē likewise, although, even so

māˀ only then, (not) even

dâˀ.lɛ̀ˀ even

dīˀ.ʔì like this

dīˀ.nêˀ like that

kʰɛ̄.lə̀ˀ all

kəsɔ̄.dɔ̄ indeed

kəsɨ̄.dɨ̄ quietly

xâˀ.xâˀ approximately

kədɛ̄.kədɛ̄ mutually

tīˀ.tīˀ exactly, sharp (time)

sɨ̀ˀ.sɨ̀ˀ respectively

tʰɔ̄.bō always

ɲɔ̄.nɨ̂ usually, commonly

6. Subordinators / Adverbializers

lə̄ (generic) that, which, who (complementizer, relativizer)

pʰɛ̄ when (temporal adverbializer)

tɨ̀ when, until (temporal adverbializer)

tɨ̀.mê when (once)

dīˀ.θōˀ so that, in order to (purposive)

mê.lə̄ since, because (causal)

kʰɔ̄.pʰlō lə̄ because (causal)

mê if, when (conditional)

dīˀ be like (similative adverbializer)

7. Verbal Modifiers (Secondary Verbs & V2s in Compounds)

Secondary Verbs (Pre-main verb):

bâˀ must (deontic)

krə̄ˀ should (deontic)

lôˀ need to (deontic)

ʔɛ̂ˀ.dōˀ want to

bâˀ.θāˀ want to

θāˀ.ʔôˀ feel like (desire to)

sʰə̄ wish to

θā intend to

sāˀ.tʰɔ̂ˀ start to

θāˀ.pè.nɔ̂ˀ forget to

ɣɨ̀ˀ.klɛ̄ˀ.sə̄ˀ / klɛ̄ˀ.sə̄ˀ try to

sʰɛ̄ˀ continue to

nê get to (opportunity) – Northern Thailand

Adverbial Modifiers (Post-main verb):

kəlɔ̄ (V) for free

kəmâˀ (V) incorrectly

sʰûˀ (V) by force

kʰū.θûˀ (V) secretly

ɲɔ̄.nɨ̂ (V) commonly

nɔ̂ˀ (V) to remind/for future recollection

sō (V) from above

θəkōˀ (V) together

xɨ̀ˀ (V) along with

dâˀ (V) only, autonomously

Temporal-Relational Modifiers:

sʰō (V) first, early

pàˀ (V) in advance, for later

tê (V) and abandon, (V) long ago (perfect-like)

Purposive Modifiers:

ʔɔ̂ˀ (V) for eating, (V) for a living

kwâ (V) and see, try (tentative/conative)

lō (V) to learn/train

nê (V) and get (self-benefactive)

θī (V) and die, (V) to kill

Directional Modifiers:

tʰɔ̂ˀ up, out, appear (inchoative)

lɔ̀ down

xɔ̀ horizontally

nɨ̀ˀ in, into

kè return, again, back

kwìˀ away, (telic marker)

wè.wɔ̀ about (here and there)

tərīˀ around (in a circle)

kʰɔ̄.pʰlō through

kədā / kədɔ̄ˀ again (back)

sʰə̄ in return, respond

Aspectual Modifiers:

xàˀ fixed, resulting state (atelic)

kwìˀ away, disappearance (telic)

Valency-Increasing (Affectedness):

nê / ʔêˀ benefactive/malefactive

sə̀ help (by V-ing)

jɨ̀ / ɣɨ̀ assist

bâˀ (applicative) adds an affectee, signals unexpectedness

8. Classifiers and Classifier-Related Morphology

Numeral Prefix:

tə- one

Numeral Roots:

kʰī two

θə̄ three

lwî four

jɛ̂ five

xɨ̄ six

nwī seven

xōˀ eight

kʰwī nine

Sortal Classifiers:

ɣà humans

dɨ̄ animals, animate entities (demons, drums, baskets)

bō long, 1D objects (roads, snakes, sticks)

bêˀ flat, 2D objects (books, leaves, shirts, birds)

pʰlə̂ˀ round, 3D objects (balls, fruits, buildings, cities)

lôˀ lump-like, irregular 3D objects (clouds, fried eggs)

tôˀ small, round things (drops, eyes)

kʰā abstract things, small pieces, instances

mì kind, name

kəlɨ̀ˀ kind, ethnicity

mjō kind (Burmese loan)

pù place (holes, pieces of land)

tɔ̀ place (sections, grades)

lɔ̂ field

pà / kəpà side, one of a pair

kʰɔ̄ side

sʰō things in pairs (shoes, carts, guns) – Northern Thailand

kʰôˀ head (trees, vehicles, pairs)

Mensural Classifiers:

kʰwāˀ cupful

nàˀ basketful

mɔ̄ mouthful

sɣɔ̀ handful

sʰī ten

kəjà / pɔ̂ hundred

kətʰō / mə̄ thousand

kəlāˀ / θə̄ ten thousand

kəlɔ̂ hundred thousand

kəkwɛ̂ million

nîˀ year

lā month

nwī week

nì day

θɔ̄ day

nâˀ.rîˀ hour

blɔ̄, wɔ̄, sɨ̄ time

tʰîˀ instance, moment

pʰɨ̄ group, flock

dûˀ clan, family, herd

kərə̄, kərû group

sûˀ pair

kʰôˀ pair

sʰō pair (N.Th.)

lôˀ lump

tʰū roll

kədôˀ bundle

kʰlɨ̂ˀ cluster

kâˀ skewer

bôˀ wrap

klò row, line

pûˀ pile

pɛ̄ puddle/stain

Pluralizers/Collectivizers:

θêˀ pluralizer (for humans)

təpʰâˀ collectivizer (a collection/group of)

θêˀ.təpʰâˀ combined plural/collective marker

Classifier Constructions:

tə-CLF~CLF indefinite ('some', 'any')

tə-CLF-tə-CLF distributive ('each one')

tə-CLF bâˀ tə-CLF / tə-CLF wì tə-CLF successive ('one after another')

9. Noun Phrase Modifiers

Quantifiers:

sɣà a few

ʔā many

təblɨ̄ˀ several

kōˀ each

jâ both

dɔ̄ whole

pɣɛ̀ how many

Demonstratives:

ʔì this

nêˀ that

ʔəwɛ̄.ʔì / tâ.ʔì / ʔəʔì this (emphatic/pronoun)

ʔəwɛ̄.nêˀ / tâ.nêˀ / ʔənêˀ that (emphatic/pronoun)

Intensifying Particles (NP-internal):

ɦò only

xɔ̄ same

dɛ̄ˀ each (co-occurs with kōˀ)

ɲā very

Other Modifiers:

ʔəɣà other, another

nɔ̄ extent (used in negative contexts: 'nɔ̄ tə-ɣà' = nobody)

tʰɛ̄ only

10. Sentence-Final Particles (by function)

Declarative/Factual:

lɔ̀ general factual

nêˀ.lɔ̀ factual, formal/narrative

mɔ̄ / mɔ̀ attenuative (softens)

nɔ̄ / nɔ̀ agreement-soliciting (okay? right?)

ɦɛ̂ˀ emphatic, corrective

kâ probabilitive ('probably') – NT, M

θə̂ˀ / jə̂ˀ / ɲə̂ˀ suppositive ('surely') – NT, M

mə̄ / mə̀ hesitation, regret – KT; assuredness – NT, M

nɛ̂ˀ defensive, rebuking – NT

Interrogative:

ɦā polar question

lɛ̂ˀ content question

nɨ̄ mirative question (surprise) – NT

lā emphatic question (lɔ̀ + ɦā)

jā colloquial question (KT)

ɦɔ̂ surprised question (KT)

Imperative/Optative:

təkê optative (soft command/desire)

təɣè negative optative (don't, may you not)

mɔ̀ precative/optative (let's, may we) – sentence-initial

təbâˀ prohibitive modal (don't, must not) – sentence-initial

Vocative/Interactional:

ɦə̄ vocative (O!)

mɔ̂ˀ / mɔ̀ topic particle ('how about X?')

ɦɔ̀ confirmative (right? you will, won't you?) – in commands

sê also, attenuative (softens a question/command)

11. Interjections and Fillers

ʔə̄ / ʔɨ̄ yes

hə̄ˀ.ʔə̄ / hɨ̄ˀ.ʔɨ̄ no

kɛ̄ / kɛ̂ so, well (discourse filler)

ʔəwɛ̄(.dâˀ) it (hesitation filler)

ʔəwɛ̄.nêˀ that (hesitation filler)

hɨ̃ uhm (nasalized hesitation)